Contents
CONTENTS 1
ABBREVIATIONS
7
1 Ancient
Sources 7
2 Papyri and
Non-Literary Sources 14
3 Early
Jewish Literature 14
4 Modern
Works 15
5 General 18
6 Signs 19
PREFACE 21
CHAPTER ONE –
INTRODUCTION 25
1 The
Purpose of the Study 26
2 The
Scholarly Discussion 27
2.1
Predecessors 27
2.2
Intermediate Studies 36
2.3 Main
Contributors 39
2.4 Recent
Studies 48
3 Basic
Problems and Method 50
3.1 The
Terminology 51
3.2 The
Definition 53
3.3 The
Basic Questions of the Investigation 56
3.4
Considerations of Theory 57
3.4.1
Philology 58
3.4.2
Semantics 59
4 Content of
the Book 63
CHAPTER TWO
– GREEK LITERATURE 65
1 The
Archaic Era 66
1.1 Homer 66
1.2 Aesop 69
1.3
Conclusion – The Archaic Era 69
2 Historians
of the Classical Era 70
2.1
Herodotus 70
2.1.1
Herodotus’ Use of ἀνασταυροῦν 71
2.1.2
Herodotus’ Use of ἀνασκολοπίζειν 79
2.1.3
Herodotus’ Use of Nail Terminology 84
2.1.4
Conclusion – Herodotus and Crucifixion 87
2.2 Thucydides
92
2.3 Ctesias
94
2.4 Xenophon
97
2.5
Conclusion – Historians of the Classical Era 97
3
Philosophical Literature of the Classical Era 99
3.1 Plato 99
3.2
Aristotle 101
3.3
Conclusion – Philosophical Literature of the Classical Era 102
4 Tragedy,
Comedy and Orators of the Classical Era 102
4.1
Aeschylus 102
4.2
Sophocles 104
4.3
Euripides 105
4.4
Demosthenes 108
4.5
Conclusion – Tragedy, Comedy and Orators of the Classical Era 109
5
Greek Historians of the Hellenistic Era 109
5.1 Polybius
109
5.1.1
Undefined Suspension Punishments in Polybius 109
5.1.2
Post-Mortem Suspension in Polybius 111
5.1.3
Ante-Mortem Suspension in Polybius 112
3.1.4
Conclusion – Polybius and Crucifixion 114
5.2 Diodorus
Siculus 114
5.2.1
Undefined Suspensions in Diodorus Siculus 115
5.2.2
Post-Mortem Suspensions in Diodorus Siculus 117
5.2.3
Possible Impaling Accounts in Diodorus Siculus 119
5.2.4
Possible Ante-Mortem Suspensions in Diodorus Siculus 120
5.2.5
Suspension by Nailing in Diodorus Siculus 123
5.2.6 Conclusion
– Diodorus Siculus and Crucifixion 125
5.3
Conclusion – Historians of the Hellenistic Era 127
6 Papyrus
and Fragmentary Texts of the Hellenistic Era127
6.1 Papyrus
Hellenica 127
6.2 Alexis
128
6.3
Conclusion – Papyrus and Fragmentary Texts of the Hellenistic Era 129
7 Historians
of the Roman Era 129
7.1 Strabo
129
7.1.1
Suspension Texts in Strabo 129
7.1.2
Conclusion – Strabo and Crucifixion 133
7.2
Dionysius of Halicarnassus 133
7.3 Flavius
Josephus 135
7.3.1 Texts
Without Indications of the Suspension Form 136
7.3.2 Texts
With Indications of the Suspension Form 142
7.3.3
Conclusion – Josephus and Crucifixion 153
7.4 Plutarch
156
7.4.1
Undefined Suspensions in Plutarch 156
7.4.2
Suspension Accounts With Additional Information159
7.4.3
Nailing Accounts in Plutarch 164
7.4.4
Plutarch’s Use of σταυρός 167
7.4.5
Conclusion – Plutarch and Crucifixion 171
7.5 Appian
172
7.5.1
Appian’s Use of σταυροῦν and σταυρός 173
7.5.2
Appian’s Use of κρεμαννύναι 174
7.5.3
Conclusions – Appian and Crucifixion 178
7.6
Conclusion – Historians of the Roman Era 179
8
Philosophical and Poetical Authors of the Roman Era 180
8.1 Philo
Judaeus 180
8.1.1
Undefined Suspensions in Philo 180
8.1.2
Suspensions by Nailing in Philo 185
8.1.3
Ante-Mortem Suspensions in Philo 186
8.1.4
Conclusion – Philo and Crucifixion 188
8.2 Chariton
189
8.2.1 The
Suspension of Theron 189
8.2.2 The
Suspension of Chaereas and His Cellmates 190
8.2.3 A
Recapitulation of the Suspensions 191
8.2.4
Chariton’s Use of σταυρός 192
8.2.5
Conclusion – Chariton and Crucifixion 194
8.3
Conclusion – Philosophical and Poetical Literature of the Roman Era 194
9 Conclusion
– The Greek Literature 195
9.1 The
Terminology 195
9.1.1 The
Verbs 195
9.1.2 The
Nouns 198
9.1.3 The
Terminological Problem 200
9.2 The
Punishment 200
CHAPTER
THREE – LATIN LITERATURE205
1 Historians
206
1.1 Gaius
Iulius Caesar 206
1.2 Gaius
Sallustius Crispus 207
1.3 Titus
Livius 208
1.3.1 The
Case Against Horatius 208
1.3.2 Livy’s
Use of crux 211
1.3.3
Conclusion – Livy 214
1.4 Valerius
Maximus 214
1.4.1
Conclusion – Valerius Maximus 217
1.5
Cornelius Tacitus 217
1.5.1
Tacitus’ Use of Assumed Crucifixion Terminology 217
1.5.2
Conclusion – Tacitus 223
1.6 Gaius
Suetonius Tranquillus 223
1.6.1
Suetonius Use of crux and Accompanying Verbs 223
1.6.2 The
Ancient Custom 226
1.6.3
Conclusion – Suetonius 226
1.7 Clodius
Licinius 227
2
Playwrights 228
2.1 Titus
Maccius Plautus 228
2.1.1
Conclusion – Plautus 232
2.2 Publius
Terentius Afer 233
3 Rhetorical
Texts 233
3.1 Marcus
Tullius Cicero 233
3.1.1
Cicero’s Oration Against Gaius Verres 234
3.1.2
Cicero’s Defense of Rabirius 240
3.1.3
Conclusion – Cicero 242
3.2 Lucius
Annaeus Seneca (the Elder) 242
3.3 Lucius
Annaeus Seneca (the Younger) 244
3.3.1
Conclusion – Seneca the Younger 250
3.4 Gaius
Plinius Secundus 251
3.5 Marcus
Fabius Quintilianus 253
3.6 Quintus
Curtius Rufus 254
4 Poetry 255
4.1 Gaius
Valerius Catullus 255
4.2 Quintus
Horatius Flaccus 256
4.3 Publius
Ovidius Naso 256
4.4 Marcus
Valerius Martialis 257
4.5 Decimus
Iunius Iuvenalis 258
5
Inscription259
6 Conclusion
– The Latin Literature 262
6.1 The
Terminology 262
6.2 The
Punishment 265
CHAPTER FOUR
– THE OLD TESTAMENT AND
RELATED
LITERATURE 269
1The Old
Testament 271
1.1 Genesis
271
1.2 Numeri
274
1.3
Deuteronomy 277
1.4 Joshua
278
1.5 The
Books of Samuel 280
1.6 Ezra 284
1.7 Esther
286
1.8
Lamentation 289
2 The
Deuterocanonical Texts 291
3 The Dead
Sea Scrolls 291
4 The
Apocryphal Old Testament 295
5 Conclusion
– Old Testament and Related Literature 296
5.1 The
Terminology 296
5.2 The
Punishment 299
CHAPTER FIVE
– THE EXECUTION OF JESUS 301
1 The
Gospels 302
1.1 Jesus
Foretells His Passion 302
1.2 To Carry
One’s Own Cross 305
1.3 A
People’s Call for Execution 307
1.4 The Road
to Golgotha 309
1.5 The
Execution 312
1.6 The
Criminals 314
1.7 The
Mocking of Jesus 315
1.8 The
Death of Jesus 316
1.9 The
Aftermaths of the Death of Jesus 318
2 Acts 320
3 The
Epistles Attributed to Paul 321
4 The
Epistles Not Attributed To Paul 325
5 Revelation
326
6 Conclusion
– The Execution of Jesus 327
CHAPTER SIX
– DISCUSSION WITH REFERENCE
LITERATURE
AND SCHOLARS 331
1 Discussion
One – The Definition of Crucifixion 331
1.1 An
Execution 332
1.2 In the
Strict Sense, an Execution 333
1.3 Not
Necessarily an Execution 335
1.4
Uncertainty, but Nevertheless a Crucifixion 336
1.5 A Better
Way: A Suspension Among Others 338
1.6
Conclusion – The Definition of Crucifixion 342
2 Discussion
Two – The Terminology of Crucifixion 342
2.1 The
Greek Terminology 343
2.1.1
ἀνασταυροῦν and ἀνασκολοπίζειν 343
2.1.2
σταυροῦν 346
2.1.3
σταυρὀς 349
2.1.4κρεμαννύναι
352
2.2 The
Latin Terminology 353
2.3 The
Hebrew-Aramaic Terminology 354
2.4
Conclusion – The Terminology of Crucifixion 356
2.4.1 Verbs
of the σταυρ-Stem 356
2.4.2
ἀνασκολοπίζειν 357
2.4.3
σταυρός 358
2.4.4
κρεμαννύναι 359
2.4.5 crux
360
2.4.6
patibulum 360
2.4.7 The
Hebrew-Aramaic Terminology 361
2.4.8 The
Terminology of Crucifixion 361
3 Discussion
Three – The Depiction of Crucifixion 362
3.1 The
Scholarly Contributions 362
3.2
Evaluation of the Scholarly Contributions 369
3.3 A
Depiction of Crucifixion 372
4 Test Case
I – The Archaeological Challenge 373
5 Test Case
II – Challenging the Basic Theory 374
CHAPTER SEVEN – ANSWERS TO THE BASIC QUESTIONS
OF THE INVESTIGATION 379
BIBLIOGRAPHY 383
1 Primary Sources (Texts and Translations) 383
2 Reference Works 396
3 Secondary Literature 400
4 Internet 413
